Read OCR Digitized Article Text
NOTE: This plain text article interpretation has been digitally created by OCR software to estimate the article text, to help both users and search engines find relevant article content. To read the actual article text, view or download the PDF above.
Symp. zool. Soc. Lond. (1978) No. 42, 69-78
Social Behavior in Group-Living Spider Species
J. W. BURGESS
NC Mental Health Research, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
SYNOPSIS
Gregariousness in spiders can range from apparently fortuitous aggregations to highly integrated social systems employing communication, interaction and co-operation among members. About 33 species are known which reportedly conform to these group-living criteria: they are found consistently distributed in species-characteristic clumps, and they interact or transfer information between individuals. Using new reports and original, unpublished observations, species’ societal and behavioral strategies are compared to determine patterns in spider social organization. The 20 best-known species are from different taxa and distant geographical areas; they are found to make up four distinct lifestyles which are similar across many dimensions. This supports the hypothesis that there exist some predominant patterns of social lifestyle into which species may have settled, according to their behavioral pre-adaptations.
INTRODUCTION
In spiders, there are few enough group-living species to make it possible to study social trends in the entire order. What patterns exist in group-living spiders? Are there certain basic ways in which spiders are likely to be social, i.e. interrelated complexes of behaviors which make up general strategies favored by behavioral pre-adaptations and the survival requirements of available niches? Some alternative hypotheses might predict that social patterns are centered in certain taxonomic lines or are correlated with geographic areas. To begin to answer these questions, this paper will compile known group-living species and compare their lifestyles along many dimensions, concentrating on predation, young-caring, and web-building behaviors. Sources include previously unreviewed studies, as well as personal communications to and observations by the author.
Out of 30 000 known spider species (Kaestner, 1969), there is clear evidence for group-living behavior in only about 33 species. I use the following criteria to identify group-living, possibly social species: (1) the species must be found in statistically demonstrable clumps and (2) individuals must exhibit some communication or interaction beyond that seen in male/female mating pairs. Much information presented in previous reviews (Kullmann, 1968; Krafft, 1970; Shear, 1970; Wilson, 1971) will not be repeated here.
GROUP-LIVING SPECIES
Listed here is a glossary of terms. Web: web component terms taken from Burgess 8c Witt (1976). Orb-webs are temporary structures unless noted. Tangled or loose space web may be different from tensioned space web. Sheets consist of planar threads, with few strong connections. Individual: behaviors performed by a single spider; catching prey, feeding; staying near, touching or manipulating the egg sac. Communal: behaviors performed in a group; predation, feeding, attending egg sacs. Cohabitation is temporary sharing of web components. Juveniles: care and behavior of early immatures. Size: reported size of colony, web complex or maternal group. Spacing: spatial relationships in group. Contact species are dose afid tough without aggression. Uniform species maintain a minimum nearest neighbor distance,
Dictynidae
Mallos gregalh^:0)iguet, 4909; Burgess, 1976; Burgess Wîft^976) JHexico. Web: sheet, tunnel, chambers. Communal: building, predation® feeding, egg sac ^^m^yfeation predation cdf (Burgess, 1975). Juveniles; Share adult’s prey. Size;, ghgai^nÿ^^pacing:.contact. .
M.trjktàtkitiis (Jackson, this, ydhtme, p. 79Southwest USA. Web: retreats* sjhfegfS ££om$£ctedt. fef- tangled’ wefet, Individual?,
sheet-building, predation, feeding. Communal: interstitial web-building, cohabitation fit greats ffemàle/male ^fêmp^luvenil#|loT interstitial web (juveniles); Hiding with çohabitar|fc|M|^pSi4èid-10 200. Spacing: nearest occupied refrgftt, 6* 1 cM^^0^68, 27 aggregation^®
Dictyna ôalcarata, B. aB&jpilosa (R. R. Jackson, pers. comm.) Mexico. Like M. trivittatus.^^^raMnsis, D. tridentatâ, D. j|. phylax. West
USA. Web: sheets* rétreat^tndi viduàh building, predati^f|feeding. Communal; cohabitation.
Amaurobiidae
Amaurobiug socialis(Rainbowpp905 ; 1949) Australia. Web:
sheet, tunnel, chamber. Communal: living? Many individuals build together.
Ixeuticus candidus(McKeown, 19^2) JL = Phrygenoparus gausapata,
P.tubicola, P, nigritius) 197® Australia. Web: sheet, tunnel.
Juveniles: build individually around female’s wéb,/ ^
Oecobiidae
Oecobius civitas (Shear, 1970; Burgess, 1976) Mexico. Web: connected sheets, peripheral lines. Individual: building, predation, feeding. Communal: web-stealing, prey-stealing. Size: 1-100. Spacing: nearest neighbors 0*52 cm (0*04 s.e., 6 complexes; author’s observations).
O. annulipes (Gertsch, 1949) and other oecobiids. Sometimes aggregated.
BEHAVIOR OF SOCIAL SPIDERS
71
Uloboridae
Uloborus republicanus (Simon, 1891; Wilson, 1971) South America, West Indies. Web: orbs connected by space web. Individual: orb-building, predation, feeding, egg sac care. Communal: space web-building, cohabitation on space web. Size: hundreds-thousands. Spacing: females apart on orbs and space web.
U. mundior (Struthsaker, 1969) Panama. Individual: predation, feeding. Communal: spiders move throughout colony. Size: 14-21 (mean 24*7, 4^tonlesp
U. raffrayi (Simon, 1S9|> Singapore. Web: orbs, tangled (space?) web.
U. arizonicus, U. oweni (Murrw Gertsch, 1984) Southwest USA. Web: orbspÿjBtçe web. JComstock, 1971)
North America. Sometimes found aggregated.
Phètëidae
Physocyclus dugesi (author’s observations; determined by W. J. Gertsch) Mexico, southwest USA. Web: loose spare web (up to fllf mling). Individual: predation, egg sac care. Communal: building, web sharing. Size:.clusters of fflffiQ. Spacing: nearest neighbors 2A)7 cm (s.e. .0*S8, 15 ciustersjb
Eresidae
Stegodyphus sarisinorum (Kullmann,’IftsÿWàbi Be Zimmermann, 1972; Jacson 8c Joseph, 1973) Africa, Afghanistan, India. Web: sheet, turu^^,. chambers. Individual: egg sacs opened. Communal^gilding, predfbob, feeding, egg sap efre. jèyÉùi%s;.: regurgitation-féd, share adult’s prey. Size: |î-518 (rfïêari 91,p^i tjgï, 15 colonies). Spacing: contact.
S.’^masarum^^0 Mléêbrmti, H j TjjfflMfolir Kullmann
a/.|,1972) Ethiopia, Tanzania. Web:’.|3l^y^s, chambers. Individual: egg sacs opened. Communal: building, predüion, feeding, egg sac care. ’Juveniles: regurgitation-fed|Jfe#$fc*adult’s prey. Spacing: contact.
S. pacifiais (Kullmann et al.,1972| Àfghanistan. Web: sheet» tunnel, chamber. Individual: as adults, egg sac opened. Juveniles: stay with female, regurgitation-fed, eat mother, catch prey together. Disperse, seen in groups of 4-5. Size: female + 260-600 young. Spacing: contact (mother and offspring)»
S. lineatus (Kullmann et al., 1972) Palestine, Afghanistan. Web: sheet, tunnel, retreat. Individual: as adults. Juveniles: stay with female, regurgitation-fed, eat mother. Spacing: females touch offspring.
Araneidae
Metepeira spinipes (Burgess 8c Witt, 1976; author’s observations; determined by W. J. Gertsch) Mexico. Web: orbs and retreats connected by space web. Individual: orb-, retreat-building, predation, feeding, egg sac
J. W. BURGESS
care. Communal: space web-building, cohabitation on space web, in retreats (female/male). Size: 1-31 (mean 11, s.e. 1 *4, 42 colonies). Spacing: nearest neighbors 15-63 cm (s.e. 2-38, 11 colonies). Leg-jerk-ing toward orb intruders.
M. labyrinthea (McCook, 1889) North America. Sometimes aggregated.
Metabus gravidus (Buskirk, 1975a) Costa Rica. Web: orbs connected by lines. Individual: orb-building, predation, feeding. Communal: web-stealing, prey-stealing (rare), aggregate under rock or log (at night). Juveniles: disperse, may later join colony. Size: 5-70. Spacing: nearest neighbors in orbs, about 16-22 cm; hierarchy of displays defend individual’s web and feeding spaces (Biilkl|É, 1975b).
Cyrtophora’\ ctjxicoiatjjtullmannjpf 1QSIS Blanke, 1972) Africa*
Afghanistan. Web: permanent orbs, Surrounded by spice web, connected. Individual: building, predation, feeding, egg sac cs&tk’. Communal: web-stealing, prey-stealing, some cannibalism, spaé0 jpeb repair. Size: repQQ. Spacing: minimum hub distance, 15 cm (Blanke, 197:fll|M ^p^moluccensis (Lubin ew Guine^ Like ^cifrrfca/^ljeg-jerk-
ing, tensioning, shaking defences m web space.
C. monulfi ||^Mjfejpt974) New Guinea. Sometimes aggregated. .
Araneus bandeleri (Simon, 1891) Venezuela. Commuai: otherwise! solitary fetnafes bbi&rved inr#fgt.%ith egg s^$g. Single observing not. corroborated.
Theridiidae
Anelosimus eximius'(Geftsch, 1949; Brach, 1and Central
America. sheet, tangled building, predation,
feeding. Tadult’s prey. Size: thousands? Spacing: contact.
A. studiosus (Brach, 1977; D. 0o#tn, pers. comm.) Southeast USA.
Web: sheet, retreat, space web aboV^..Ij|dWldual: adult females, egg sac care. Communal: fetùàles, males, offspring. Juveniles: regurgitation-fed, catch prey together. Site: female, males + 3lpSb y$png. Spacing: females contact offspring, drive away conspecific females.
A.jucundus observations; determined by N* I. Platnick)
Mexico. Web: sheet, leaf retreat, tangle above. Webs contained either female carrying egg sac or young. Juveniles: stayed in retreat, caught prey on web.
Achaearanea disparata (Darchen, 1965, 1968) Africa. Web: sheet, leaf retreat, space web above. Communal: building, predation, feeding, share retreat, egg sac care. Spacing: contact.
A. tepidariorum (Gertsch, 1949). Juveniles: briefly share female’s web.
A.riparia ( = Theridion saxatile) (Ndrgaard, 1956) Europe, USSR. Web: space web, retreat. Individual: as adults, egg sac care. Juveniles: share female’s retreat, web, prey. Vibratory signals. Spacing: females touch offspring, adults sometimes aggregated.
Theridion sisyphium (Bristowe, 1958; Kaston, 1965) Europe, Web: space web, retreat. Individual: as adults. Juveniles: share female’s retreat, web, prey-catching; regurgitation-fed. Spacing: females touch offspring.
T. impressum(Kullmann, 1970). Web: space. Individual: as adults.
Juveniles: regurgitation-fed, eat mother, T. pictum (Nielsen, 1932). Juveniles: share female’s web, prey. T. zelotypum (Gertsch, 1949). Juveniles: briefly share female’s web.
Agelenidae
Agelena consociata(Darchen, 1965; Krafft, 1970) Africa. Web: vertical,
horizontal sheets, tunnels, chambers. Communal: building, predation, feeding, egg Ifit cire. Juveniles: share adult’s (mean
49*7, s.e. 15-3, 29 colonies; DarchênlB^). Spacing: contact.
A. republicana (Darchen, 1076). Similar to A. consociata. Size: 5—515 (mean 66-6, s.e. 13.0, 50 colonies)|
Coelotesterrestris (Tf^tzel, 1961).Juveniles: share female’s web, prey-catching, regurgitation-fed’. Vibration diseriipination.
Dipluridae
Macrothele darcheni (Darchen, 1965) Africa. One colony of 20 members. Communal: space web-building, predation, feeding. Spacing: oontltet,
Lycosidae
Sosippusfloridanus (Bréch, 51S76) Southeast Web: funnel sheet,
space web above. Individuals^ adults, egg sac carerljtveniles: carried by female; share her web, prey, prty^i§0jking. Size: , female + 20-70 offspring. Spacing: females touch offspring.
DISCUSSION: PATTERNS OF SOCIALITY
There are behaviors which are conspicuously absent from any of the species here reviewed. For example, no species is without some sort of web, including a representative from a family which contains few web-building species (5. floridanwt),This evidence supports Shear’s (1970) hypothesis that web was an important pre-adaptation to sociality and, indeed, web has been shown to be important for communication (Witt, 1975), tolerance (Burgess, 1975), and even the aggregation (Krafft, 1970; R. R. Jackson, pers. comm.) of spiders.
There is no present evidence that any of these species have developed morphologically distinct castes or insects’ eusociality (Wilson, 1971). This could be explained by some differences between spiders and hymenopterous insects, e.g. spiders are not known to be haplodiploid, they have no larval brood that demands great care and their co-operative behavior appears to emphasize simultaneous co-ordination of
74
J. W. BURGESS
individuals’ efforts on a task instead of division of labor. Even the building of a common, central egg sac is doubtful, although egg sacs may be stored or tied closely together.
Within several taxonomic genera there are some possible continua of colonial development, from species that are loosely affiliative, to those that are more distinctly social. In both of the genera Mallos and Anelosimus there are species which build loose clusters of aggressively defended individual webs and species which share a large group web and have co-ordinated communal behavior, Species in the genera Ste-godyphus, Anelosimus and Theridion show a range of maternal care from brief passive tolerance to elaborate feeding behavic&In each of the genera Uloborus, Metepeira, Cyrtophdra and Oecobius are found both a
species which forms fortuitous, oon-sOci|fcj^ aggregations of touching webs and at least one specks forming regular aggregations, where characteristic fêtions are observed. IrJ$ possible that the different behaviors^within genera represent steps along one or more evolutionary roads to s^iality. In genera like Mallos, Theridion, Anelosimus, phus and Agelena w|a||| have close-spaced communal web species, the first step irt evolutionary development to sociality could be neoteny: the retention of the tolerant behavior of ju^tt^es. Which remain peacefully in their maternal web. Prolonged living on the female’s Web is seen Anelosimuéÿtudiosus and a generalized juvenile tolerance (retained in a web-complex Organization) is retained in Mallos trwtitatMs. In genera like Cyrtophora, Metepeira, Uloborus, Oecob and Metabus which include ^ regularl||||paced web-complex builders, the first step toward groupliving could be the tendency: of mature individual# ;to build webs clot® together in fortuitous aggregations as is Seen in Cyrtophora, Mete
peira labyrinthica-, Uloborus americanus, Oecobius annulipes and other species. After these initiaiT^^^^^sùfltirig in predictable aggregated habits, selection for sets #f interrelated social behaviors could begin. Such hypotheses could be tested by comparing various other attributes (e.g. morphology, protein chemistry or additional behaviors) of the species in a transformation series to seeifthey predict the same order of development (N. I. Platnick, pers. comm.|;|
In close-spaced, communal web genera like Mallos, Agelena, Anelosimus, Theridion and Stegodyphus, the first step in evolutionary development may have been neoteny; the retention of behaviors of the juveniles who remain close together in the web, tolerantly building and feeding (seen in many species). Selection for social advantages of increased investment in offspring and social facilitation in prey-catching and the building of catching and sheltering web components would operate on both young and old individuals. M. trivittatus and D. calcarata, where juveniles and males can remain in individuals’ webs temporarily, may retain this intermediate behavior which has become stable through the presence of separate communally-used web structures. In regularly-spaced web complex builders like Cyrtophora, Metepeira, Uloborus and Oecobius, the first step toward group living may be the tendency of mature individuals
BEHAVIOR OF SOCIAL SPIDERS
75
to build webs close together in fortuitous aggregations as is seen in C. monulfi, M. labyrinthea, U. americanusand O. annulipes. After these initial
steps resulting in predictable group habits, gene selection for sets of interrelated social behaviors could begin.
Surely the most striking behavioral trend here is that similar behavioral strategies are seen among groups of spiders which are from widely different taxonomic groups and from distant geographical areas. Diverse species not érfiêyshare feeding (Kullmann, 1970),
maternal care and adult aggregative behaviors (Wifson, 1971), but groups of species’ lifestyles are simitar Along many dimensions. This conclusion : was suggested and supported hpra multifactorial cluster analysis of behavior traits of the 20 best-known species, which will be published elsewhere. The groups generated form the patterns discussed below.
Several highly aggregative sgwcies which share many ffecets of their lifestyle are. M. gregaliç, Agelena ï~têê$&0@ta, eximius,
S. mreesinorum and possibly A large sheet web is built
communally tgeeatch prey, with a-a^Mory tunnels and chambers which house spiders, egg sues and ypmpg together. Egg sacs are hung in groups and are attended by several ff$ü®les. Predation and feeding is communal and cannibalism is not seen. The major food for young sjûéders is prey , taught If adults. Webs are permanent and spiders on them* are close ^together and touch each other frequently: The wfbs offer a large catching area for individuals plusprotection from the elements and from the ®yes of Ipider predators. Pftty caught together is often large compared lie the size of the individual spiders. A® ggê/sfx classes are found together. Golopypopulation can he very large |^^^|000 clutch
size is quite small (ÎQ-SÔ), Thrte have|$jfc&gp not Ifllliflp a larger
‘ web and closer mates but élsd share the tasks Of fgtpy eap^u^e and care of young with other group members. Thispfestyle fWategy could be called “communal-co-operative”.
Another group of species loosely fgftJor-m ■•to Kullman’s “maternal-social” category and al|o share many other behaviors: A. riparia,
T. sisyphium, Stegodyphus pad ficus, A. studiosus, Sosippus floridanus and possibly C. krrestris. None of these species is found consistendy aggregated as adults, but immature spiders remain in their mother’s web for some time. Females remain close to their young and touch them, but do not prey on them. The young eat regurgitated fluid and/or prey caught by the mother, and may catch prey together on the female’s web. Webs all possess a retreat area inhabited by the mother and young spiderlings. Webs are permanent, and may be repaired but are not usually replaced. As the young grow older, they become more aggressive toward each other until they finally disperse. Young have access to the protection of the web and food obtained from the mother or caught communally. Clutch size (36-450) is lower in this group than in most solitary web builders, supporting the notion that brood survival is increased by maternal care (Kullman et al., 1972).
J. W. BURGESS
76
Still another set of shared behaviors are seen in M. spinipes, U. -licarius, M. trivittatus and D. calcarata. Well-defined communal and individual activities are present, facilitated by the existence of both individually-built webs, where prey is caught, and centrally located, communally-built structures, where many individuals can stay. M. spinipes and U. republicans are strikingly similar orb/space web builders, while M. trivittatus and D. calcarata construct sheet webs connected with tangled interstitial silk. Prey-catching webs are usually spaced apart, but cohabitation of webs is commoràÿ observed and spiders may stay quite close to. one another without aggression. Intruders onto an individual well may be met wfefeaggression, however, especially if they are the same age and sex as thft web occupant. Many webs in the colony are’built by adufti, but youfrgeiyspiders are also seen. Prey-catching and feeding are performed individlifjff’y Young are not cared for; theyîÉJre tolerated and allowed remain close to their parent’s web. The aggregated w#b$ provide little additional cover and the cost of individual prey-catching is probably not much.different from that in ||pi>tory- species. By locating their webs together, additional “knock-down” area is ivai^bte to entangle and slow down prif| Com<t| munal web c^ÿtés a firmer foundation on which to build individual webs, as well as allowing ^brati^n signals and other colony members to move between websvMaies’ ease in locating females is certainly-improved over solitary species and spiders can benefit from access to web area or prey caught while iri cohabitation without’having to build a web. Colonies can also, monopolize large attractive habitat areas?(such as sites Over flowing streiajn®).
A. soméwhat-?^nilÿr r^ttorn is seen in the behaviors shared by M. gravidus, ||Mtricola,’^.wt&lii^oemis and civitas. Webs are built
together, but no communal or specialized connecting components are constructed. This means that if an animal ventures from her web, she can easily be in the wigfe of a neighbor, and considerable aggression if observed when spiders defend web space. Cannibalism occurs but is probably not frequent. Feeding and prey.^®teii^g| Ifere individual, and spiderlings receive no maternal care. Young disperse, but some also join the web colony. There is generally a MtoÉftmm distance between web centers in these colonies. The eKtfa knock-down area of neighbors’ webs may increase prey caught by individuals (Buskirk, 1975a) as well as providing support. Because C^f the rather high incidence of prey and/or web stealing, individuals benefit from access to the webs of all their neighbors. For this reason this group could be considered “web-complex builders”.
The conclusion from this compilation is exciting: species have independently developed social strategies that are demonstrably similar along many dimensions. Species which share behavior are not concentrated in the same genera nor even live on the same continents. The results are consistent with the notion that certain behavioral traits are more beneficial for an individual when they are present along with other
BEHAVIOR OF SOCIAL SPIDERS
77
behaviors. Certainly there is growing evidence that behaviors in colonial spiders are rather flexible and interrelated. For example, in a species which builds orb-webs and is found in spatial aggregations, the behaviors which result in building a communal web, aggressive defense of web space and tolerance to cohabitants may be selected for more than behaviors leading to maternal care or co-operative prey-catching. This thesis could be supported or refuted by examining more species and looking at additional behavior# which are thought to be interrelated. It is hypothesized that there are certain predsminâut patterns of social lifestyle seen, into/%&feh a spider species may fall, according to its behavioral pre-adaptations. And that, in specializing within a given behavioral pattern, many behavioral traits work together and complement each pther to form an integrated system of group living- W’hich is unique, yet predictable for each species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This worktyas supported by National Science Fondation Grant BMS 75-09915 to P. N- Witt. I am grateful to colleagues who helped with “personal communication” and M;lli N.-, -WiL-lSf, I: Platnick. R. R. Jackson and R. Daniels.
REFERENCES
filanke, R. (1972).f<ersuehtingen zur Qekopby^|fi|j| und Oekethologie voft Cyrtophora 0rieoldForskal in Andalusien. Forma et Functio 5: r25-206.
Brach, V. (biology <Ç|lïh#bèial spider Amlosifnus eximins {ArânëaÉ?; f Theridiidae). Bull. SA: Calif. A&dk Sc*.,74:
Brach, V. (1976). Subsocial the funâel-üêelk wolfspider Sosippus
floridanns(Araneae: tycosidae), Fla:59: 225-^®.
Brach, V? (1*#77). Anelosimus^stU’divsus (Àranéaer Th’eridiidae)”and the evolution of quasisociality in Thërîdiid sÿider^ ^vofaéerf, Lancaster, Pa. 31: 154-161.
Bristowe, W; $.||f®53). The ff spiders.London: Collins.
Burgess, J. W. (1975). The sheet web as a transducer, modifying vibration signals in social spider colonies of Mallos greg N^ms-ci. 1: 557,
Burgess, J. W. (J@76). Social-spidt^s. Scient. Am. 234: 100—106.
Burgess, J. W. & Witt, i§197(|). Spider webs: design and engineering. Interdise. Sci. Rev. 1: 322-335.
Buskirk, R. E. (1975a), Coloniality, activity patterns and feeding in a tropical orb-weaving spider. Ecology 56: 1314-1328.
Buskirk, R. E. (1975b), Aggressive display and orb defense in a colonial spider, Metabus gravidus. Anim. Behav. 23: 560-567.
Comstock, J. H. (1971). The spider book (Ed. and revised: W. J. Gertsch). Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univ. Press.
Darchen, (1965). Ethologie d’une araignée sociale. Agelena consociata Denis. Biologia gabon. 1: 117—146.
Darchen, R. (1968). Ethologie d’Achaearanea disparata Denis, Araneae, Theridiidae, Araignée sociale du Gabon. Biologia gabon. 4: 5—25.
78
J. W. BURGESS
Darchen, R. (1976). La fondation de nouvelles colonies d’Agelena consociata et d’Agelena republicana, Araignées sociales du Gabon. Problems Eco-etholo-giques. C. r. Congr. Arachn. Fr. 1976: 20-39.
Diguet, L. (1909). Le mosquero. Bull. Soc. natn. Acclim. Fr. 56: 368-375.
Gertsch, W. J. (1949). American spiders. New York: D. Van Nostrand.
Jacson, C. C. & Joseph, K. J. (1973). Life-history, bionomies and behavior of the social spider Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch. Insectes soc. 20: 189-204.
Kaestner, A. (1969). Invertebrate zoology 2. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Kaston, B. J. (1965). Some little known aspects of spider behavior. Am. Midi. Nat.
73: 336-356.
Krafft, B. (1970). Contribution à la biologie et à l’éthologie d’Agelena consociata Denis (Araignée sociale du Gabon) I, II, III. Biologia gabon. 3: 197-301; 5: 307-369; 7:3-56.
Kullmann, E. J. (1958). Beobachtungen des Netzbaues und Beitrage zur Biologie von Cyrtophora citricola Forskal. Zool. Jb. (Syst.) 86: 181-216.
Kullmann, E. L (1968). Soziale Phaenomene bei Spinnen. Insectes soc. 15:
289-297. I
Kullmann, E. J. (1970). Bemerkenswerte Konvergenzen im Verhalten cribellater und ecribellater Spinnen. Freunde Kôlner Zoo 4: 123-150.
Kullmann, E. J., Nawabi, St. & Zimmermann, W. (1972). Neue Ergebnisse zur Brütbiologie cribellater Spinnen aus Afghanistan und der Serengeti (Araneae: Eresidae) Z. Kôlner Zoo 3: 87-108.
Lubin, Y. D. (1974). Adaptive advantages and the evolution of colony formation in Cyrtophora (Araneae: Araneidae). Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 54: 321-339.
McCook, H. (1889). American spiders and their spinning work. Philadelphia: Allen Lane and Scott.
McKeown, K. C. (1952). Australian spiders. Sydney: Angus Robertson.
Main, B. Y. (1971). The common “colonial” spider Ixeuticus candidus Koch and its synonyms (Dictynidae: Araneae). J. Proc. R. Soc. West. Aust. 54: 119-120.
Muma, M. H. 8c Gertsch, W. J. (1964). The spider family Uloboridae in North America north of Mexico. Am. Mus. Novit. No. 2196: 1-43.
Nielsen, E. (1932). The biology of spiders, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Levin & Munks-gaard.
N0rgaard, E. (1956). Environment and behaviour of Theridion saxatile. Oikos 7: 159-192.
Rainbow, L. (1905). Studies in Australian Araneidae. No. 4. Rec. Aust. Mus. 6:
9-12.
Shear, W. A. (1970). The evolution of social phenomena in spiders. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 1: 65-76.
Simon, E. (1891). Observations biologiques sur les arachnides. I. Araignées sociables. Annls Soc. ent. Fr. 11: 1-14.
Struthsaker, T. T. (1969). Notes on the spiders Uloborus mundior (Chamberlin and Ivie) and Nephila clavipes (Linnaeus) in Panama. Am. Midi. Nat. 82: 611-613.
Tretzel, E. (1961). Biologie, Oekoiogie und Brütflege von Coelotes terrestris (Wider). Z. Morph. Ôkol. Tiere 49: 658-745; 50: 375-542.
Wilson, E. O. (1971). The insect societies. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge Univ.
Press.
Witt, P. N. (1975). The web as a means of communication. Biosci. Commun. 1:
7-23.